Lit.Guruji

                    The Indian Jugglers                                    - William Hazlitt William Hazlitt (10 April 1778 – 18 September 1830) was an English essayist, drama and literary critic, painter, social commentator, and philosopher. He is now considered as one of the greatest critics and essayists in the history of the English language, placed in the company of Samuel Johnson and George Orwell. William Hazlitt  was eager to inquire into human life with all its variety. He was keenly interested in a vast variety of things-books of all kinds, politics, sports, stage etc. He conveyed his enjoyment and observation to the readers through his essays. William Hazlitt in his essay the  Indian Jugglers  talks about the stunning performance of an Indian Juggler. In this essay he praises the Juggler’s mechanical mastery, his “skill surmounting difficulty, and beauty triumphing over skill,” . Hazlitt is perplexed to see an odd and inexplicable mixture of simple and miracu

                         Autobiography  The   author writes the story of his own life and achievements. The aim of an autobiography is  *to present his personality  * the authors period. Autobiography can never be complete. Dr.Johnson prefered Autobiography to Biography. The inner psyche will be known only by the autobiographer. As Longfellow claims "Autobiography is a product of first hand experience". It is a truer form of writing.  Autobiographies are written by famous people.  Writing an autobiography allows the author to share the real story and put it into the larger context of their life and times. An autobiographer faces certain difficulties. Great care has to be taken in making any comments on people who may be alive when the book appears.  An artistic difficulty that a autobiographer was to omit the details of daily life that are common to everyone, and must concentrate on what was striking or exceptional. 

                    The One-Act Play The   One-Act Plays were quite brief. Several little plays got. Combined to form a full-length drama. The interlude of the later 15th C was also a brief. It vanished for a while and reappeared in 18th Century. It reached its peak during 19th Century. At a later period the standard programme at a London theatre consisted of full-length play proceded by a One-Act piece called a "curtain raiser". But people were not interested in short play. But the form didnot get vanished. Technique The One-Act Play is not a full-length play in miniature. It is a form by itself. It imposes severe restrictions on the playwright. It is a form by itself with "laws" of its own. One-Act Play is easier to write than the full-length play. Brevity is the soul of the One-Act Play. It has a single main episode and is either a pure comedy or pure tragedy. Simplicity of design and immediate impact are the qualities on which it depends for its succ

                                   Essay Definitions for Essay: Dr. Johnson defined essay as "a loose Sally of the mind, an irregular, indigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance".  The Oxford English Dictionary explains it as " a composition of moderate length on any particular subject".  Saintsbury describes it as "work of prose of art". Hugh Walker divides essay in to two types, *Essay Par Excellence - the writers of highest degree is one type. *Composition - these writers are comparatively short and in being more or less incomplete. The true essay according to W.H. Hudson "is essentially personal". Origin : Roman writers Cicero and Seneca wrote Epistles . These Epistles were considered as essays and not letter. Bacon says the word essay is ancient, for Seneca's "Epistles".  Types of Essay: Personal Essay: Montaigne, the French writer of the 16th century wrote personal essays. He employed the term &qu

                  Dramatic Monologue Dramatic Monologue is a poetic form. It is cast in the form of a speech addressed to a silent listener. It's aim is character study or "psycho-analysis". Robert Browning is an exponent in using this technique. Tennyson also used in his poem Ulysses and Tithonus .  A poem in which an imagined speaker addresses a silent listener, usually not the reader. Examples include Robert Browning's “My Last Duchess,” T.S. Eliot's “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.  Dramatic Monologue is part drama and part poetry. It could be recited on the stage before the audience. But it differs from drama because it lacks complete action. It is completely addressed to a passive listener.  Browning's Contribution: Browning's finest poetry is in the form of dramatic monologue. He has uttered his own thoughts. His masterpiece The Ring and the Book is a series of ten lengthy monologues. The story of a famous trail in Italian histo

                        The Ottava Rima The Ottava Rima is an Italian stanza form. It was introduced into England by Sir Thomas Wyatt in the 16th century. It is a stanza of eight lines iambic pentameter. The rhyme scheme is ab abb cc. It is a narrative measure similar to Chaucerian Stanza. Byron used it for satire in The Vision of Judgement and for mock-heroic effects in Don Juan . Shelley and Keats used it for pure narrative in The Pot of Basil and The Witch of Atlas.  The isolated couplet of the Ottava Rima ( ab abb cc  ) provides a convenient opportunity for transitions of mood.

    The Chaucerian Stanza or Rhyme Royal A stanza of seven lines in iambic pentameter rhyming ab abb cc. Rhyme: a b a bb cc - The first with third. a b a bb cc - The second with fourth and fifth. ab abb cc - Couplet standing alone  Rhyme Royal form was borrowed from Italy. It was first used by Chaucer. The name Rhyme Royal is first adopted by King James I of Scotland in his King's Quair. Chaucer has used rhyme Royal in his works,               * Troilus and Cressida               * The Parliament of Fowls               * Second Nun's Tale. Rhyme Royal was adopted by Shakespeare for The Rape of Lucrece. 

                          Heroic Couplet The Heroic Couplet consists of two iambic pentameters (lines of ten syllables). Eg : We think/our fa/thers fools,/so wise/we grow, Our wi/ser sons/ no doubt,/will think/us so. It is called "heroic" because 10 syllable iambic verse, whether it rhymes or not, is the usual form of epic verse in English celebrating heroic exploits.  Characteristics of Heroic Couplet 1. There is a pause at the end of the first line, indicated by a comma.  2. There is a pause at the end of the couplet, indicated by full stop. 3 .The couplet is closed. 4 .The rhyme is single e.g. "grow" and "so". 5 .Ten syllables. Usage of Heroic Couplet The usage of Heroic Couplet varied from time to time and from poet to poet. It was most correctly used by pope. The Heroic Couplet was first used in England by Chaucer . He employed in his Canterbury Tales.  The Elizabethans used it with equal skill in their poetry and drama. For eg. Shakespear

                            How to Win?                                          - Shiv Kera Shiv Kera is one of the famous motivational speaker and he energize the audience by delivering matters in simplified manner. In his prose piece " How to Win? " Kera motivates the readers to build positive self-esteem.  Self-esteem is the way we feel about ourselves. The author volunteered to teach attitude and self-esteem programmes for his jail friends. The  behavioural changes in a person will showcase the process of learning.  The narrator asked the first jail inmate about the effect of motivational programme. The jail mate replied that he read Bible, and further claimed that he was going to try to be a contributing member of the society. The narrator asked him to get rid of the word "try".  Another jail mate approached Shiv and asked "what do you get paid to do all this". The narrator's purpose was not money. He has come there for his own s

                            Dark Room                                       - R.K. Narayan R.K. Narayan is a leading Indian writer. His novel "The Dark Room" is published in the year 1938. This novel talks about the life of a timid, submissive, sacrificial and suffering woman Savitri. She is the mother for two daughters (Sumathi and Kamala)  and one son (Babu). She is scorned and abused by her bossy husband Ramani.  Ramani works for the Engladia Insurance Company, Malgudi. He is very domineering and cynical in his ways. He is a irritable person. He keeps his house gloomy and his wife, Savitri, his children and servants in a state of terror.  Savitri is a true symbol of traditional Indian woman. She is very beautiful and remains silent. She is deeply devoted to her husband. In the 15yrs of their married life, Savitri has received only abuses and rebukes. Ramani treats his kids in a bossy manner.  Savitri often feels hurt and dejected and she puts herself in a dark

                   Vanishing Animals                                  - Gerald Durrell Gerald Durrell (1925 - 1995) was a naturalist, Zookeeper, author and television presenter. He was born at Jamshedpur in India. "Vanishing Animals" is an interesting piece of writing which introduces us to problems of the animals facing the threat of extinction.  Gerald begins the essay calling the Pere David Deer as "refugees" in England. A French Missionary, Father David  discovered the existence of this deer in China. In 1865 the father heard about the existence of a  strange herd of deer in the Imperial Hunting Park, China. This park was guarded by Tartar Soldiers.  Father David managed to enter this park. He was delighted to see a new species which he had never seen in his past. He realized that the deer were strictly protected. He desired to send few of these species to Europe, but the Chinese authorities would not allow him to transport them to Europe. So he unla

            Duchess of Newcastle                                     - Virginia Woolf Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673) was a royalist, philosopher, duchess, and a writer. She was a poet, essayist and a pioneer of science fiction. She published her works under her original name, which was rarity during her period.Virginia Woolf described her as “a giant cucumber…noble and Quixotic and high-spirited, as well as crack-brained and bird-witted.” Cavendish’s enemies called her “ Mad Meg.” “I do not like her at all,”  said Samuel Pepys.  Margaret Lucas was born at St. John’s Abbey. She is the daughter of Thomas and Elizabeth Lucas. Among the eight children of Thomas, Margaret is the youngest one. She belonged to a royal family. She lost her father at the age of two. She was educated at home. She learned the art of dance, music, and needlework. She had an interest in writing at her young age.  The civil war broke out in England during the year 1640. The members of Margaret's fa

                       Soliloquy and Aside  Soliloquy is a secret thought uttered aloud on the stage to acquaint the audience of what is passing in his mind. It is spoken when no other actor is present.This device was long an accepted dramatic convention, especially in the theatre of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The main purpose of a soliloquy is to tell you how they are feeling. For example, in Shakespeare's King Lear, his soliloquy demonstrates to the audience he's going crazy. The Aside is a passing thought uttered aloud by an actor infront of other characters on the stage, who are not supposed to hear it. It is the shortest form of soliloquy. It is as unnatural as the soliloquy.  The soliloquy is used in farce and melodrama till  and end of 19th century. Later both Aside and soliloquy have vanished during the modern drama. The soliloquy has a honoured place in literature. Some of the noblest passages in Shakespeare are cast in that form. Eg: Hamlet'

                     Dramatic Irony Types of Irony Dramatic Irony is a form of contrast. It is a situation in which the audience or reader has a better understanding of events than the characters in a story do.  Verbal irony occurs when the literal meaning of what someone says is different from—and often opposite to—what they actually mean.  Example: In Shakespeare's Twelfth Night the conversation taking place  between the Duke and Viola, disguised  as a page, illustrates the use of verbal irony. Similarly in  As You Like It Rosalind disguised as shepherd, speaks to Orlando her lover, in the Forest of Arden. Disguise is a source of verbal irony.  Irony of situation in which circumstances covey opposite meanings to the characters on the one hand and audience on the other.  An example of situational irony is Macbeth's castle, were Duncan finds pleasure, but the audience is aware about his death. The greatest example of situational irony in the play is  Oedipus tryin

                                      Character is Destiny                                     _ Dr. Radhakrishnan  Dr. Radhakrishnan is a well known philosopher and educationalist. In his essay Character is Destiny he talks about the importance of character in shaping the destiny of a nation. He wishes to develop our nation. Radhakrishnan states that the universities should produce scientists, doctors, engineer etc. At the same instance a country should aspire for great scientists, doctors, engineers with a lot of humanism. Technological development alone cannot uplift a country.  Some scientifically developed countries are torn by strife and they are unable to bring peace, safety and security to their people. This is because of the lack of education preached about humanity in the universities. So the universities should impart education on humanism. "Everyman is God" is the teaching of Upanishads. The Buddhists declare that each individual has a divine spark i

                                    Masque   Saintsbury defines Masque as "a dramatic entertainment in which plot, character and even to a great extent dialogue are subordinated on the one hand the spectacular illustration, and on the other to musical composition". It was a medley of music, and dancing woven around fairy tale, allegory or myth.  Masque was of Italian origin. Later it reached England during 16th century. The English masque occurs in Hall's Chronicle for the year 1512. It was performed at the Kings court. Features of Masque 1.   The characters are deities of classical mythology, nymphs etc. 2. The number of characters is restricted to six. 3. The scenery and costumes are very eleborate. 4. A comic interlude is introduced called the anti-masque. It's Decline  Masque is a expensive form of entertainment. It is presented at court or during festive occasions. The marriage of Ferdinand and Miranda in Shakespeare's Tempest is a Masque. More

                                 Farce   Farce is an exaggerated form of comedy. Its aim is to provoke hearty  laughter. It belongs to the realm of nonsense, in which the characters a were free from everyday cares and restraints.  Farce comes from a Latin word meaning "to stuff".  The farces were inserted into the main play. Shakespeare's Midnight Summer's Dream and Merry Wives of Windsor has farcial elements. As a separate form of entertainment farce came into a vogue towards the close of 17th century. During 18th century there was a rise in  sentimental comedy  and anti-sentimental comedy. The popularity of farce during this period was not to the peak. Two successful farce during Victorian age are The Private Secretary by Charles Hautry and Charley's Aunt by Brandon. On the modern stage a good farce is to bring fortune for the author.  Eg: George Bernard Shaw, Arms and the Man.  Farce is not a high form of dramatic art but needs inventiveness and c

                        Tragi-Comedy Tragi-Comedy is half tragedy and half comedy. Both comedy and tragedy are intermingled harmoniously. Thus Tragi-Comedy became a genre of play that mixed tragic elements into drama that was mainly comic.  A comedy with tragic background is more effective comedy. The wrong done by chief character is corrected at the end. Eg. As You Like It and Much Ado about Nothin g.  Tragic comedy is a complete tragedy at a complication part that is the beginning part and complete comedy at the denouement.  The Rising Action - Tragedy The Falling Action - Comedy The tragicomedy dates back to the Roman dramatist, Plautus. In his Amphitruo, he called his play a " tragico-comoedia". The English form arose in the reign of James I under Italian and Spanish influences. Shakespeare handled the form at the end of his career. Tragic- comedy argument:  Addison claims "one of the most monstrous invention that ever entered into poet's thoughts&qu

                           Comedy Comedy deals with the light side of life. It evokes laughter. In a comedy the end is a happy one. The atmosphere of comedy is mirthful and light. Shakespeare's comedy "begin unhappily and end happily".   The comic actor wore a light shoe called the sock to show his lower status. They belonged to a lower class.In later literature there were comedies of high society. Falstaff and Sir Toby Belch were Shakespeare's  comedians belonging to higher status.  The purpose of comedy was to correct manners. It purifies the conduct of the audience spiritually and morally. Comedy served to explore the common errors of life. Shakespeare's comedies were written in blank verse.  Eg.  As You Like It. Types of Comedy I)Classical Comedy II)Romantic Comedy  Classical comedy In this type the author follows certain classical rules of ancient Greek and Roman writers. Some classical rules are  The Three Unities of Time, Place and Action. Sepa

                         Tragedy   Tragedy deals with the darker side of life. Its aim is to inspire awe and pity. A tragic ends with death or unhappy ending. Greek tragedy deals with the fate characters of high birth or King or Princes. Eg.King Lear, Othello. The falling of a king or the ruin of a great family was more impressive for spectators.  In ancient Greece the tragic hero wore high - heeled boots called buskin to make him tall and majestic. The fall of a king or ruin of a great family is more impressive for the spectators. In later period tragedies dealt with low life Eg. Hardy's novel D'ubervilles.  The atmosphere of tragedy is sombre and serious. Tragedy according to Aristotle "purges the emotions through pity and terror". Shakespeare's tragedy begins happily and ends unhappily. Tragedy aims at giving pleasure. It purifies mind, feelings. For Greek the purpose of tragedy was to evoke Catharsis.  Tragedy can be classified into two ways with r

CHANGING THEIR SKIES Stories from Africa The Rubbish Dump STEVE CHIMOMBO A storyfrom Malawi, retold by Jennifer Bassett Rubbish is a problem in the rich world. There is too much of it, and people don't know what to do with it. In places like Africa there is less rubbish, because people have less to throw away. An airport rubbish dump is a strange place, a meeting point for rubbish that has travelled a long way. It is aiso a meeting point for Joey and Mazambezi.. . Joey sat on the ground, playing with a small toy car. The car was made out of bits and pieces - lots of old wire, pieces of cardboard, sticks, and the tops of baby-food cans for wheels. Joey was working hard, his hands busily pulling and pushing pieces of wire which were not in the right places. After a mment, he put the car down with a pleased little grunt, and began to sing: The white man is wise He made the aeroplane It's nothing else But determination. His high voice filled the air for a few minutes. T

THE MADMAN By Chinua Achebe (First Published in the The Insider (Nwankwo-Ifejika), Enugu, 1971 He was drawn to markets and straight roads. Not any tiny neighbourhood market where a handful of garrulous women might gather at sunset to gossip and buy Ogili for the evening's soup, but a huge, engulfing bazaar beckoning people familiar and strange from far and near. And not any dusty, old footpath beginning in this village, and ending in that stream, but broad, black, mysterious highways without beginning or end. After much wandering he had discovered two such markets linked together by such a highway; and so ended his wandering. One market was Afo, the other Eke. The two days between them suited him very well: before setting out for Eke he had ample time to wind up his business properly at Afo. He passed the night there putting right again his hut after a day of defilement by two fat-bottomed market women who said it was their market-stall. At first he had put up a

ON BEING TIDY  Text   A ny careful observer of my habits would know that I am on the eve of an adventure—a holiday, or a bankruptcy, or a fire, or a voluntary liquidation (whatever that may be), or an elopement, or a duel, or a conspiracy, or—in short, of something out of the normal, something romantic or dangerous, pleasurable or painful, interrupting the calm current of my affairs. Being the end of July, he would probably say: That fellow is on the brink of the holiday fever. He has all the symptoms of the epidemic. Observe his negligent, abstracted manner. Notice his slackness about business—how he just comes and looks in and goes out as though he were a visitor paying a call, or a person who had been left a fortune and didn't care twopence what happened. Observe his clothes, how they are burgeoning into unaccustomed gaiety, even levity. Is not his hat set on at just a shade of a sporting angle? Does not his stick twirl with a hint of irresponsible emotions? Is t

       Sir Roger De Coverley's Sunday Sir Roger De Coverley's Sunday is an essay from The Spectator written by Joseph Addison. This essay explores Sir Roger's participation and strict discipline maintained by him on Sundays to keep the church morally good and religious. Sir Roger is a fictional  character created by Addison. He is a good church man and has beautified his church with   several quotations from the holy Bible . He gave the church goers a hassock and a common prayer book. He employed an itinerant.  Sir Roger was the master of the church. He maintained strict discipline and good decorum in the church. He did not allow anyone to sleep during the sermon. He waked the dozing people.  Sir Roger had an eccentric nature. During the prayer  Sir Roger also joined the crowd to sing Psalms. But Roger did not sing along with the crowd.  He said ‘Amen’ three or four times. When the crowd was kneeling for prayer Sir Roger stood up to count the number of people p

                   Bookshop Memories                                               -George Orwell Bookshop Memories is written by George Orwell in the year 1936. In this essay he shares his experience working as an assistant in a second-hand bookshop.  Orwell begins the essay by breaking down the fantasy of second-hand bookstore as a "paradise where charming old gentlemen browse eternally."  He reveals the truth concealed behind a second-hand bookshop.  Orwell describes the nature of bookshop customers - first edition snobs, oriental students, vague minded women and "the kind of people who would be a nuisance anywhere but have special opportunities in a bookshop". Orwell talks about two types of "pest" who "haunt" such bookshops.  I) Decayed Person - Attempt to sell worthless books . II) Paranoiacs - Orders large number of books but has no intention to purchase it.  The shop had various sidelines including second - hand typewriters,